rupak

An A-Z Index of the Windows XP command line

noreply@blogger.com (Rupak Nepali) — Mon, 21 Dec 2009 13:08:00 +0000

An A-Z Index of the Windows XP command line
ADDUSERS Add or list users to/from a CSV file
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
ASSOC Change file extension associations•
ASSOCIAT One step file association
AT Schedule a command to run at a later time
ATTRIB Change file attributes
b
BOOTCFG Edit Windows boot settings
BROWSTAT Get domain, browser and PDC info
c
CACLS Change file permissions
CALL Call one batch program from another•
CD Change Directory - move to a specific Folder•
CHANGE Change Terminal Server Session properties
CHKDSK Check Disk - check and repair disk problems
CHKNTFS Check the NTFS file system
CHOICE Accept keyboard input to a batch file
CIPHER Encrypt or Decrypt files/folders
CleanMgr Automated cleanup of Temp files, recycle bin
CLEARMEM Clear memory leaks
CLIP Copy STDIN to the Windows clipboard.
CLS Clear the screen•
CLUSTER Windows Clustering
CMD Start a new CMD shell
COLOR Change colors of the CMD window•
COMP Compare the contents of two files or sets of files
COMPACT Compress files or folders on an NTFS partition
COMPRESS Compress individual files on an NTFS partition
CON2PRT Connect or disconnect a Printer
CONVERT Convert a FAT drive to NTFS.
COPY Copy one or more files to another location•
CSCcmd Client-side caching (Offline Files)
CSVDE Import or Export Active Directory data
d
DATE Display or set the date•
Dcomcnfg DCOM Configuration Utility
DEFRAG Defragment hard drive
DEL Delete one or more files•
DELPROF Delete NT user profiles
DELTREE Delete a folder and all subfolders
DevCon Device Manager Command Line Utility
DIR Display a list of files and folders•
DIRUSE Display disk usage
DISKCOMP Compare the contents of two floppy disks
DISKCOPY Copy the contents of one floppy disk to another
DISKPART Disk Administration
DNSSTAT DNS Statistics
DOSKEY Edit command line, recall commands, and create macros
DSADD Add user (computer, group..) to active directory DSQUERY List items in active directory
DSMOD Modify user (computer, group..) in active directory
e
ECHO Display message on screen•
ENDLOCAL End localisation of environment changes in a batch file•
ERASE Delete one or more files•
EXIT Quit the current script/routine and set an errorlevel•
EXPAND Uncompress files
EXTRACT Uncompress CAB files
f
FC Compare two files
FIND Search for a text string in a file
FINDSTR Search for strings in files
FOR /F Loop command: against a set of files•
FOR /F Loop command: against the results of another command•
FOR Loop command: all options Files, Directory, List•
FORFILES Batch process multiple files
FORMAT Format a disk
FREEDISK Check free disk space (in bytes)
FSUTIL File and Volume utilities
FTP File Transfer Protocol
FTYPE Display or modify file types used in file extension associations•
g
GLOBAL Display membership of global groups
GOTO Direct a batch program to jump to a labelled line•
h
HELP Online Help
i
iCACLS Change file and folder permissions
IF Conditionally perform a command•
IFMEMBER Is the current user in an NT Workgroup
IPCONFIG Configure IP
k
KILL Remove a program from memory
l
LABEL Edit a disk label
LOCAL Display membership of local groups
LOGEVENT Write text to the NT event viewer.
LOGOFF Log a user off
LOGTIME Log the date and time in a file
m
MAPISEND Send email from the command line
MBSAcli Baseline Security Analyzer.
MEM Display memory usage
MD Create new folders•
MKLINK Create a symbolic link (linkd)
MODE Configure a system device
MORE Display output, one screen at a time
MOUNTVOL Manage a volume mount point
MOVE Move files from one folder to another•
MOVEUSER Move a user from one domain to another
MSG Send a message
MSIEXEC Microsoft Windows Installer
MSINFO Windows NT diagnostics
MSTSC Terminal Server Connection (Remote Desktop Protocol)
MUNGE Find and Replace text within file(s)
MV Copy in-use files
n
NET Manage network resources
NETDOM Domain Manager
NETSH Configure network protocols
NETSVC Command-line Service Controller
NBTSTAT Display networking statistics (NetBIOS over TCP/IP)
NETSTAT Display networking statistics (TCP/IP)
NOW Display the current Date and Time
NSLOOKUP Name server lookup
NTBACKUP Backup folders to tape
NTRIGHTS Edit user account rights
p
PATH Display or set a search path for executable files•
PATHPING Trace route plus network latency and packet loss
PAUSE Suspend processing of a batch file and display a message•
PERMS Show permissions for a user
PERFMON Performance Monitor
PING Test a network connection
POPD Restore the previous value of the current directory saved by PUSHD•
PORTQRY Display the status of ports and services
PRINT Print a text file
PRNCNFG Display, configure or rename a printer
PRNMNGR Add, delete, list printers set the default printer
PROMPT Change the command prompt•
PsExec Execute process remotely
PsFile Show files opened remotely
PsGetSid Display the SID of a computer or a user
PsInfo List information about a system
PsKill Kill processes by name or process ID
PsList List detailed information about processes
PsLoggedOn Who's logged on (locally or via resource sharing)
PsLogList Event log records
PsPasswd Change account password
PsService View and control services
PsShutdown Shutdown or reboot a computer
PsSuspend Suspend processes
PUSHD Save and then change the current directory•
q
QGREP Search file(s) for lines that match a given pattern.
r
RASDIAL Manage RAS connections
RASPHONE Manage RAS connections
RECOVER Recover a damaged file from a defective disk.
REG Registry: Read, Set, Export, Delete keys and values
REGEDIT Import or export registry settings
REGSVR32 Register or unregister a DLL
REGINI Change Registry Permissions
REM Record comments (remarks) in a batch file•
REN Rename a file or files•
REPLACE Replace or update one file with another
RD Delete folder(s)•
RMTSHARE Share a folder or a printer
ROBOCOPY Robust File and Folder Copy
ROUTE Manipulate network routing tables
RUNAS Execute a program under a different user account
RUNDLL32 Run a DLL command (add/remove print connections)
s
SC Service Control
SCHTASKS Create or Edit Scheduled Tasks
SCLIST Display NT Services
SET Display, set, or remove environment variables•
SETLOCAL Control the visibility of environment variables•
SETX Set environment variables permanently
SHARE List or edit a file share or print share
SHIFT Shift the position of replaceable parameters in a batch file•
SHORTCUT Create a windows shortcut (.LNK file)
SHOWGRPS List the NT Workgroups a user has joined
SHOWMBRS List the Users who are members of a Workgroup
SHUTDOWN Shutdown the computer
SLEEP Wait for x seconds
SOON Schedule a command to run in the near future
SORT Sort input
START Start a program or command in a separate window•
SU Switch User
SUBINACL Edit file and folder Permissions, Ownership and Domain
SUBST Associate a path with a drive letter
SYSTEMINFO List system configuration
t
TASKLIST List running applications and services
TASKKILL Remove a running process from memory
TIME Display or set the system time•
TIMEOUT Delay processing of a batch file
TITLE Set the window title for a CMD.EXE session•
TLIST Task list with full path
TOUCH Change file timestamps
TRACERT Trace route to a remote host
TREE Graphical display of folder structure
TYPE Display the contents of a text file•
u
USRSTAT List domain usernames and last login
v
VER Display version information•
VERIFY Verify that files have been saved•
VOL Display a disk label•
w
WHERE Locate and display files in a directory tree
WHOAMI Output the current UserName and domain
WINDIFF Compare the contents of two files or sets of files
WINMSD Windows system diagnostics
WINMSDP Windows system diagnostics II
WMIC WMI Commands
x
XCACLS Change file and folder permissions
XCOPY Copy files and folders
:: Comment / Remark•
Commands marked • are Internal commands only available within the CMD shell.
All other commands (NOT marked with •) are external commands which may be used under the CMD shell, PowerShell, or directly from START-RUN.

noreply@blogger.com (Rupak Nepali) — Thu, 17 Dec 2009 13:28:00 +0000

17th Dec 2009

To,
The HR manager
Everest Bank Ltd
New Baneshwor, Kathmandu

Subject: Regarding the internship provision

Respected sir/madam,

As a potential intern, with required qualification and a strong desire to excel in banking profession, I am seeking to align myself as an intern with a company that ranks top at the global market and also offers internship to undergraduates like me.
I am seeking a professional opportunity where my educational and other co-curricular experiences can benefit your company as well as lead me to my career goal and drive me along my career path.

I keep forth my kind request to consider my application for internship for internship at your bank for a period of six weeks which is a must for the course of BCIS(Bachelor in computer information system) under Pokhara University. As under the university norms, we are supposed to select the specialized subject in final year and I have decided to take part in IT sector. This opportunity will help me to explore more during my classes and learn more.

I assure you that I will strongly adhere to the bank norms and rules during my tenure as an intern and at any time in the future. I will also fulfill my responsibilities with utmost dedication if given any.

I wait for your positive response.

Thanking you.

Yours sincerely,
Rupak Nepali
BCIS 7th semester
Nobel College

internship letter, cover letter, intern letter, letter of internship,

Loadsheding in Nepal schedule

noreply@blogger.com (Rupak Nepali) — Mon, 14 Dec 2009 00:54:00 +0000

Loadsheding in Nepal schedule,loadshedding schedule in nepal, nepal electricity authority, nepal schedule of light, light schedule loadshedding,light loadshedding in nepal from 2009/12/14 2066/08/27

What are the functions of functions key in Computer from F1 to F12?

noreply@blogger.com (Rupak Nepali) — Fri, 04 Dec 2009 05:10:00 +0000

What are the functions of functions key in Computer? F1 to F12

Answer:

Commonly known as "function keys", F1 through F12 may have a variety of different uses or no use at all. Depending on the installed operating system and the software program currently open will change how each of these keys operate. A program is capable of not only using each of the function keys, but also combining the function keys with the ALT and/or CTRL keys, for example, Microsoft Windows users can press ALT + F4 to close the program currently active.

Below is a short-listing of some of the common functions of the functions keys on computers running Microsoft Windows. As mentioned above not all programs support function keys and/or may perform different tasks then those mentioned below. If you are looking for more specific shortcut keys and function key examples we suggest seeing our shortcut key page.

* Almost always used as the help key, almost every program will open the help screen when this key is pressed.

* Windows Key + F1 would open the Microsoft Windows help and support center.

* Open the Task Pane.

* In Windows commonly used to rename a highlighted icon or file.

* Alt + Ctrl + F2 opens a new document in Microsoft Word.

* Ctrl + F2 displays the print preview window in Microsoft Word.

* Often opens a search feature for many programs including Microsoft Windows.

* Shift + F3 will change the text in Microsoft Word from upper to lower case or a capital letter at the beginning of every word.

* Open find window.

* Repeat the last action performed (Word 2000+)

* Alt + F4 will close the program currently active in Microsoft Windows.

* Ctrl + F4 will close the open window within the current active window in Microsoft Windows.

* In all modern Internet browsers pressing F5 will refresh or reload the page or document window.

* Open the find, replace, and go to window in Microsoft Word.

* Starts a slideshow in PowerPoint.

* Move the cursor to the Address bar in Internet Explorer and Mozilla Firefox.

* Ctrl + Shift + F6 opens to another open Microsoft Word document.

* Commonly used to spell check and grammar check a document in Microsoft programs such as Microsoft Word, Outlook, etc.

* Shift + F7 runs a Thesaurus check on the word highlighted.

* Turns on Caret browsing in Mozilla Firefox.

* Function key used to enter the Windows startup menu, commonly use to get into Windows Safe Mode.

* Opens the Measurements toolbar in Quark 5.0.

F10

* In Microsoft Windows activates the menu bar of an open application.

* Shift + F10 is the same as right-clicking on a highlighted icon, file, or Internet link.

F11

* Full-screen mode in all modern Internet browsers.

F12

* Open the Save as window in Microsoft Word.

* Shift + F12 save the Microsoft Word document.

* Ctrl + Shift + F12 prints a document in Microsoft Word.

noreply@blogger.com (Rupak Nepali) — Tue, 01 Dec 2009 16:32:00 +0000

Hello, world!
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How to make Diet Coke and Mentos Rocket

noreply@blogger.com (Rupak Nepali) — Tue, 01 Dec 2009 16:08:00 +0000

What happen when diet coke and mentos get mixed??

It forms boom which get exploid

myths and facts health tips diet management

noreply@blogger.com (Rupak Nepali) — Mon, 30 Nov 2009 08:13:00 +0000

Celebrities from different countries

noreply@blogger.com (Rupak Nepali) — Mon, 30 Nov 2009 07:11:00 +0000

Celebrities From COLOMBIA
Catalina Sandino Moreno
Eileen Roca
Fabian Sanchez
Juan Pablo Angel
Juan Pablo Montoya
Katherine Medina
Lianna Grethel
Maria Jose Torrenegra
Paola Turbay
Paula Garces
Shakira
Sofia Vergara
Sonia Uribe
Taliana Vargas

Celebrities From ICELAND
Alexandra Ivarsdottir
Anita Briem
Berglind Icey
Bjork
Unnur Birna

Celebrities From HONG KONG
Edison Chen
Francine Dee
Isabella Leong
Jackie Chan
Ka Yi Cheung
Skye Chan
Stephanie Jacobsen

Celebrities From GREECE
Aikaterini Evangelinou
Angeliki Kalaitzi
Daniela Amavia
Doukissa Nomikou
Elena Paparizou
Paris Latsis
Yanni

Celebrities From GERMANY
Angelina Glass
Anne Katrin Walter
Cascada
Claudia Schiffer
Cosma Shiva Hagen
Diane Kruger
Dirk Nowitzki
Eva Padberg
Franka Potente
Franziska Van Almsick
Gina Lisa Lohfink
Heidi Klum
Janice Behrendt
Katarina Witt
Kristin Lehmann
Lena Gercke
Lukas Podolski
Madina Taher
Martina Gedeck
Michael Ballack
Miroslav Klose
Nadja Auermann
Natalie Horler
Oxana Chusovitina
Pascal Hens
Sabine Ehrenfeld
Tatjana Patitz
Thomas Kretschmann
Xenia Seeberg
Yvonne Catterfeld

Celebrities From GEORGIA
Ana Giorgelashvili
Gvantsa Daraselia
Katie Melua
Khatuna Skhirtladze
Tamar Nemsitsveridze

Celebrities From AFGHANISTAN
Robina Muqimyar

Celebrities From ALBANIA
Egla Harxhi
Elda Dushi
Masiela Lusha
Matilda Mcini
Sadina Alla
Tony Dovolani

Celebrities From ANDORRA
Merche Romero

Celebrities From ANGOLA
Brigith dos Santos
Lesly Pereira
Micaela Reis

Celebrities From ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA
Athina James
Stephanie Winter

Celebrities From ARGENTINA
Agustina Quinteros
Belen Francese
Carolina Ardohain
Cecilia Bonelli
Dalma Maradona
Daniela Stucan
Ines Rivero
Javier Mascherano
Jessica Cirio
Keyra Agustina
Lionel Messi
Maria Silvana Belli
Mia Maestro
Noelia Alejandra Bernal
Pamela David
Rocio Guirao Diaz
Sabrina Rojas
Sonya Walger
Yamila Diaz
Yesica Toscanini

Celebrities From ARUBA
Boyoura Martijn
Carolina Raven
Christina Trejo
Tracey Nicolaas

Celebrities From AUSTRALIA
Abbie Cornish
Alex O'Loughlin
Amy Taylor
Andrew Bogut
Anna Rawson
Anna Torv
Bec Cartwright
Brooke Anderson
Cariba Heine
Carlie Butler
Caroline Pemberton
Cate Blanchett
Cate Campbell
Claire Holt
Claudia Black
Dannii Minogue
Delta Goodrem
Dominic Purcell
Eamon Sullivan
Elissa Sursara
Elle Macpherson
Emilie de Ravin
Emily Browning
Emily Scott
Eric Bana
Erin McNaught
Gemma Ward
Heath Ledger
Holly Brisley
Holly Valance
Hugh Jackman
Hugo Weaving
Imogen Bailey
Isla Fisher
Jacinda Barrett
Jason Clarke
Jennifer Hawkins
Jesse Spencer
Jessica Gomes
Jessica Gower
Julian McMahon
Kasia Zachwieja
Katie Richardson
Keith Urban
Kimberley Busteed
Krystal Forscutt
Kylie Minogue
Kym Johnson
Lara Bingle
Laura Dundovic
Leisel Jones
Libby Trickett
Lisa Gleave
Lleyton Hewitt
Mark Philippoussis
Matthew Newton
Megan Gale
Mel Gibson
Melissa George
Michael Johns
Miranda Kerr
Miranda Otto
Naomi Watts
Natalie Imbruglia
Nathalie Kelley
Nick Kosovich
Nicole Kidman
Niki Gudex
Phoebe Tonkin
Poppy Montgomery
Portia De Rossi
Rachael Taylor
Rachel Griffiths
Radha Mitchell
Rose Byrne
Russell Crowe
Ryan Kwanten
Sam Worthington
Simon Baker
Sophie Monk
Stephanie Rice
Teresa Palmer
Toni Collette
Torah Bright
Travis Fimmel
Yvonne Strahovski

Celebrities From AUSTRIA
Arnold Schwarzenegger
Barbara Schett
Christine Reiler
Kathrin Krafuss
Sybil Danning

Celebrities From AZERBAIJAN
Nigar Talibova

Celebrities From BAHAMAS
Anya Watkins
Sacha Scott
Shakara Ledard
Tinnyse Johnson
Trinere Lynes

Celebrities From BANGLADESH
Tannishtha Chatterjee

Celebrities From BARBADOS
Jewel Garner
Natalie Griffith
Rihanna

Celebrities From BERMUDA
Heather Nova

Celebrities From BELGIUM
Alizee Poulicek
Annelien Coorvetis
Anouck Lepere
Cecile De France
Halima Chehaima
Ingrid Vandebosch
Jessica van der Steen

Celebrities From BELIZE
Arlen Escarpeta
Charmaine Chinapen
Felicita Arzu
Maria Jeffery

Celebrities From BENIN
Djimon Hounsou

Celebrities From BELARUS
Alena Aladka
Olga Hizinkova
Tanya Dziahileva
Victoria Azarenka

Celebrities From BOLIVIA
Jackelin Arias
Jessica Jordan Burton
Kate David
Sandra Hernandez Saavedra

Celebrities From BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
Gordana Tomic
Ivana Milicevic
Olja Hrustic
Tanja Vujicic

Celebrities From BOTSWANA
Itseng Kgomotso
Malebogo Marumoagae
Mpule Kwelagobe

Celebrities From BRAZIL
Adriana Lima
Adriano
Alessandra Ambrosio
Alice Braga
Aline Nakashima
Ana Hickmann
Ana Beatriz Barros
Ana Paula Araujo
Anderson Silva
Bia Feres
Branca Feres
Caroline de Souza Correa
Caroline Trentini
Daniella Sarahyba
Fernanda Motta
Fernanda Tavares
Gianne Albertoni
Gisele Bundchen
Helio Castroneves
Izabel Goulart
Jana Ina
Jeisa Chiminazzo
Kaka
Lisalla Montenegro
Maiara Walsh
Marta Vieira da Silva
Michelle Alves
Milene Domingues
Morena Baccarin
Natalia Anderle
Natalia Guimaraes
Raica Oliveira
Raquel Zimmermann
Regiane Andrade
Roberto Carlos
Robinho
Ronaldinho
Ronaldo
Tamara Almeida
Tiazinha
Tony Kanaan
Yasmin Brunet

Celebrities From BULGARIA
Albena Denkova
Dimitar Berbatov
Gergana Kochanova
Julia Yurevich
Nina Dobrev
Paolina Racheva
Stanislav Ianevski

Celebrities From CANADA
A.J. Cook
Aaron Douglas
Alanis Morissette
Alessandro Juliani
Amanda Tapping
Amanda Walsh
Amelia Cooke
Ashley Leggat
Avril Lavigne
Bianca Beauchamp
Bree Williamson
Brooke D'Orsay
Cameron Mathison
Caroline Dhavernas
Caroline Rhea
Carrie-Anne Moss
Cassie Steele
Celine Dion
Cobie Smulders
Coco Rocha
Colin Ferguson
Corey Sevier
Daniel Cudmore
Daniel Powter
David James Elliott
Deanna Johnston
Diana Krall
Douglas Smith
Dustin Milligan
Edith Labelle
Elisha Cuthbert
Ellen Page
Emily VanCamp
Emmanuelle Chriqui
Emmanuelle Vaugier
Eric Johnson
Eric Lindros
Erica Durance
Estella Warren
Evangeline Lilly
Fefe Dobson
Forbes March
Gina Holden
Gloria Reuben
Grace Park
Gregory Smith
Hayden Christensen
Hazel Mae
Howie Mandel
Inga Skaya
Jamie Sale
Jay Baruchel
Jayde Nicole
Jennifer Finnigan
Jennifer Irwin
Jessalyn Gilsig
Jessica Lucas
Jessica Pare
Jewel Staite
Jill Hennessy
Jillian Reynolds
Jim Carrey
Joanne Kelly
Kandyse McClure
Karen Cliche
Kari Matchett
Kathleen Robertson
Keanu Reeves
Kelly Rowan
Kerri-Lee Halkett
Kim Cattrall
Kristin Kreuk
Kristin Lehman
Laura Regan
Laura Vandervoort
Lauren Lee Smith
Leah Ryerse
Lexa Doig
Leyla Milani
Linda Evangelista
Lisa Ray
Lloyd Eisler
Lucas Bryant
Mario Lemieux
Martha MacIsaac
Megan Park
Melissa Auf Der Maur
Melyssa Ford
Mia Kirshner
Michael Buble
Michael Cera
Michael Shanks
Mike Myers
Missy Peregrym
Molly Parker
Montreal Expos
Morgan Webb
Nadine Bryan Afari
Natalie Appleton
Natalie Glebova
Natasha Henstridge
Nathan Fillion
Nelly Furtado
Neve Campbell
Nickelback
Nicole Appleton
Pamela Anderson
Paulo Costanzo
Rachel Blanchard
Rachel Luttrell
Rachel McAdams
Rachel Perry
Rachelle Lefevre
Rainbow Sun Francks
Ryan Gosling
Ryan Reynolds
Samantha Tajik
Sandra Oh
Sara Ghulam
Sarah Burke
Sarah Carter
Sarah Chalke
Sarah McLachlan
Sarah Polley
Scott Speedman
Shania Twain
Shannon Tweed
Shaun Benson
Shaun Sipos
Shawn Ashmore
Shenae Grimes
Simple Plan
Skye Sweetnam
Stana Katic
Steve Nash
Sum 41
Suzie McNeil
Tahmoh Penikett
Tamara Taylor
Tanith Belbin
Teryl Rothery
Thea Andrews
Thea Gill
Tom Cavanagh
Tom Green
Toronto Blue Jays
Toronto FC
Toronto Raptors
Torri Higginson
Tricia Helfer
Tyler Labine
Vanessa Lengies
Victor Webster
Victoria Pratt
Vincent Lecavalier
Wayne Gretzky
Will Arnett
Will Sasso
Will.i.am
William Shatner
Yasmeen Ghauri

Celebrities From CHILE
Bernardita Zuniga Huesbe
Cote de Pablo
Cristian de la Fuente
Leonor Varela
Nataly Chilet
Santiago Cabrera

Celebrities From COLOMBIA
Catalina Sandino Moreno
Eileen Roca
Fabian Sanchez
Juan Pablo Angel
Juan Pablo Montoya
Katherine Medina
Lianna Grethel
Maria Jose Torrenegra
Paola Turbay
Paula Garces
Shakira
Sofia Vergara
Sonia Uribe
Taliana Vargas

Celebrities From COSTA RICA
Amalia Matamoros
Maria Theresa Rodriguez
Veronica Gonzalez
Wendy Cordero Sanchez

Celebrities From COTE D'IVOIRE
Didier Drogba

Celebrities From CROATIA
Blanka Vlasic
Goran Visnjic
Jelena Dokic
Jelena Maros
Josipa Kusic
Luka Modric
Nina Moric
Severina Vuckovic
Snjezana Loncarevic
Tajana Jeremic

Celebrities From CUBA
David Fumero
Dayron Robles
Jose Contreras
Mayra Veronica

Celebrities From CYPRUS
Anna Vissi
Dimitra Sergiou
Dora Anastasiou
Mari Vasileiou

Celebrities From CZECH REPUBLIC
Alena Seredova
Daniela Pestova
Denise Milani
Eliska Buckova
Eva Herzigova
Hana Soukupova
Jana Defi
Karolina Kurkova
Katerina Sokolova
Lucie Hadasova
Nicole Vaidisova
Paulina Porizkova
Pavel Nedved
Petra Nemcova
Roman Sebrle
Tatana Kucharova
Veronica Varekova
Veronica Zemanova
Zdenka Podkapova
Zuzana Jandova

Celebrities From DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO
Christelle Ndila

Celebrities From DENMARK
Caroline Wozniacki
Connie Nielsen
Helena Christensen
Line Kruuse
Lisa Lents
Mads Mikkelsen
Maria Sten-Knudsen
May Andersen
Rie Rasmussen
Zaklina Sojic

Celebrities From DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
Ada De La Cruz
Albert Pujols
Alfonso Soriano
Amelia Vega
Claudia Cruz
Dania Ramirez
David Ortiz
Hanley Ramirez
Jose Reyes
Kat DeLuna
Manny Ramirez
Marianne Cruz Gonzalez
Massiel Taveras
Miguel Tejada
Nathali Montes de Oca
Pedro Martinez
Vladimir Guerrero

Celebrities From ECUADOR
Domenica Saporiti
Lugina Cabezas
Marjorie Cevallos
Valeska Saab Gomez

Celebrities From EGYPT
Ehsan Hatem El Kirdany
Yara Naoum

Celebrities From EL SALVADOR
Gabriela Gavidia
Lisette Rodriguez
Rebeca Moreno
Silvia Melhado Rodriguez

Celebrities From ENGLAND
Abbi Tatton
Abi Titmuss
Abigail Clancy
Adele Silva
Agyness Deyn
Aisleyne Horgan-Wallace
Alison Carroll
Amanda Holden
Amelle Berrabah
Amy Nuttall
Amy Winehouse
Angela Saunders
Anna Friel
Anna Popplewell
Anna Walton
Arctic Monkeys
Arsenal F.C.
Ashley Cole
Aston Villa
Ben Barnes
Ben Miles
Bianca Gascoigne
Billie Piper
Billy Joe Saunders
Blackburn Rovers
Bonnie Wright
Callum Blue
Calvin Goldspink
Cara Brett
Carmen Ejogo
Cat Deeley
Charlie Cox
Charlie Hunnam
Charlie O'Neale
Chelsea F.C.
Cheryl Cole
China Chow
Chiwetel Ejiofor
Chris Martin
Christopher Eccleston
Christopher Lee
Claire Forlani
Clive Owen
Coldplay
Corinne Bailey Rae
Craig David
Daniel Craig
Daniel Radcliffe
Danielle Lloyd
David Beckham
David Bentley
David Bowie
David Hewlett
David Morrissey
Davina McCall
Davinia Taylor
Denise Van Outen
Dido
Dominic Monaghan
Ed Sanders
Ed Westwick
Elizabeth Hurley
Ellie Lawson
Elton John
Emilia Fox
Emily Blunt
Emily Mortimer
Emily Parr
Emma Bunton
Emma Griffiths
Emma Watson
Eric Clapton
Estelle
Everton FC
Fearne Cotton
Frank Lampard
Freddie Highmore
Freema Agyeman
Gabrielle Anwar
Gavin Rossdale
Gemma Arterton
Gemma Atkinson
Gemma Bissix
Georgia Horsley
Georgie Henley
Georgie Thompson
Georgina Walker
Geri Halliwell
Gina Bellman
Girls Aloud
Gorillaz
Hannah Spearritt
Hayley Atwell
Heather Mills
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Introduction
Computer graphics are images displayed or animated on a computer screen. Applications of
computer graphics are widespread and growing rapidly. For instance, computer-aided design is
an integral part of many engineering processes. The entertainment industry has made the most
spectacular use of computer graphics–from the special effects in King Kong to the Nintendo
Wii.
Most interactive computer software for business and industry makes use of computer graphics
including screen displays, desktop publishing, and slide production for commercial and education
presentations. Consequently, most students studying a computer language spend some time
learning how to use two-dimensional (2D) graphics, and maybe three dimensional (3D) graphics.
2 Transformations in 2D
We begin by examining some of the basic mathematics used to manipulate and display graphical
images such as a letter of the alphabet. Such an image consists of a number of points, connected
lines or curves, and information about how to fill closed regions bounded by the lines and
curves. Often, curved lines are approximated by short straight-line segments, and a figure is
defined mathematically by a list of points.
The capital letter N can be determined by eight points, or vertices. The coordinates of the
points can be stored in a data matrix D. In addition to D, it is necessary to specify which
vertices are connected by lines, but we will omit this detail for now.
The main reason graphical objects are described by a collection of straight-line segments is that
the standard transformations in computer graphics map line segments onto other line segments.
Once the vertices that describe an object have been transformed, their images can be connected
with the appropriate straight lines to produce the compete image of the original object.
1. On graph paper, carefully draw the letter N. Construct a data matrix D containing the
eight points or vertices from your drawing. Include in your report a picture of your letter
N.
1
2. Given a matrix A = 1 .25
0 1 , describe the effect of left multiplication by A on the letter
N. Include in your report a picture of the letter N after the transformation by A.
3. In the previous question, the N looks a bit too wide after the transformation by the
matrix A. to compensate, multiply (on the left) the coordinates of the letter obtained in
the previous question by the matrix S = .75 0
0 1 . Include a picture of this letter N
in your report and describe with a short sentence the effect of left multiplication by the
matrix S.
There are three different ways we can move an object to another location. The first way
is by translation. We can translate points in the xy-plane to a new position by adding
translation amounts to the coordinates of the points. For example, we translate the point
(x, y) by moving dx units parallel to the x-axis and by dy units parallel to the y-axis to
the new point (x′, y′). Then x′ = x + dx and y′ = y + dy.
4. Translate your original letter N by 3 units to the right and 2 units up. Include a picture
of the translated letter N in your report, and describe in a short sentence the effect of this
translation on the original letter N.
Points can also be scaled (stretched) by sx along the x-axis and by sy along the y-axis into
a new point by the multiplications x′ = sx · x and y′ = sy · y.
5. Scale your original letter N by 1/2 in x and 1/4 in y. Now scale the original letter N by 2
in x and 4 in y. Include a printout of both scaled letters and describe in a short sentence
the effect of these transformations on the original letter N.
6. In the previous question, what matrices A and B would produce the effects of the trans-
formations on the letter N when the matrix D is multiplied on the left by A or B?
Points can also be rotated through an angle about the origin. Let (x, y) denote a point
in the plane that we wish to rotate through the angle , and let (xr, yr) denote the new
point after the rotation. Our first objective is to calculate the new coordinates in terms
of the old ones. Let b denote the length of the line segment from (0, 0) to (x, y) and
denote the angle between the x-axis and this line. Then x = b cos( ) and y = b sin( ).
Similar formulas give us xr and yr in terms of the angle + .
2
7. Find formulas for xr and yr similar to those given for x and y in terms of the angle + .
Use trigonometric identities to rewrite these formulas in terms of the angles and . Then
identify occurrences of x and y in these expressions, and rewrite the formulas to give xr
and yr in terms of x, y, and only.
8. Rewrite this transformation (the rotation through the angle ) as left multiplication by a
matrix A, that is, find A so that A x
y = xr
yr . We will call A the rotation matrix for
the angle .
9. Test your result from the previous question by rotation the point (1, 0) through an angle
of 60◦. First, use some scratch paper and trigonometry to see what the answer should be.
Then let B be the 2×2 rotation matrix for the angle of 60◦. Apply B to the appropriate
vector for the point (1, 0). Check that your matrix B gives the same result as the hand
calculation.
10. Repeat the preceding step with the point (0, 1).
11. Using your calculator, compute B6,B12,B18, and B24. Explain your results in terms of
rotations. In particular, how could you have predicted the particular matrices that your
calculator produced?
12. Let K be the 2 × 2 rotation matrix for a rotation of 15◦. Compute B2,K4,K2B,KBK
and BK2. Compare the results and explain what you see.
13. Explain why the product of any two 2 × 2 rotation matrices is another rotation matrix.
Illustrate your argument with a specific example.
14. In general, we know that matrix multiplication is not commutative; i.e., if A and B are
both n×n matrices, then usually AB is not the same as BA. However, rotation matrices
are a special case. Explain why, for any two 2D rotation matrices Q and R, it must follow
that QR = RQ. Then use B and K from the preceding step to illustrate your argument.
3 Homogeneous Coordinates
In Part 1, we saw that there were three types of transformations in 2D – translation, scaling,
and rotation. OF these three, scaling and rotation can be accomplished by left multiplication
of a 2 × 2 matrix. It turns out that translation cannot be accomplished by left multiplication
of a 2 × 2 matrix. WE would like to be able to treat all three transformations in a consistent
way, so that they can be combined easily. This can be done by expressing the points in homogeneous
coordinates. Homogeneous coordinates were first developed in geometry and have been
applied in graphics. Numerous graphics subroutine packages and display processors work with
homogeneous coordinates and transformations.
3
Each point (x, y) in the xy-plane can be identified with the (x, y, 1) on the plane in R3 that
lies one unit above the xy-plane. We say that (x, y) has homogeneous coordinates (x, y, 1). For
example, the point (0, 0) has homogeneous coordinates (0, 0, 1). Homogeneous coordinates for
points can be transformed via multiplication by 3 × 3 matrices.
1. What 3×3 matrix has the effect of translating the point (x, y) by dx units parallel to the
x-axis and by dy units parallel to the y-axis to the new point (x′, y′)? That is, find a 3×3
matrix A so that A

x
y
1

=

x′
y′
1

.
2. Repeat the previous question for scaling by sx along the x-axis and by sy along the y-axis.
3. Repeat for rotations through the angle .
The movement of a figure on a computer screen often requires two or more basic transfor-
mations. The compositions of such transformations corresponds to matric multiplication
when homogeneous coordinates are used. For the next three questions below, find 3 × 3
matrices that produce the described composite 2D transformation, using homogeneous
coordinates. Illustrate each composite 2D transformation on the image of a triangle with
data matrix D = 5 2 4
0 2 3 .
4. Translate by (3, 1) and then rotation 45◦ about the origin.
5. Translate by (−2, 3) and then scale the x-coordinate by .8 and the y-coordinate by 1.2.
6. Reflect points in the x-axis, and then rotate 30◦ about the origin.
7. Consider the following geometric 2D transformations: D a dilation (in which x-coordinates
and y-coordinates are scaled by the same factor), R a rotation, and T a translation. Does
D commute with R? In other words, is DR = RD for any rotation and dilation D? Does
D commute with T ? Does R commute with T ?
8. A rotation on a computer screen is sometimes implemented as the product of two shear-
and-scale transformations, which can speed up calculations that determine how a graphic
image actually appears in terms of screen pixels. (The screen consists of rows and columns
of small dots, called pixels.) The first transformation A1 translates vertically and then com-
presses each column of pixels; the second A2 translates horizontally and then stretches each
row of pixels, where A1 =

1 0 0
sin() cos() 0
0 0 1

and A2 =

sec() −tan() 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

. Us-
ing = 30◦, apply A1 followed by A2 to the rectangle with data matrixD = 1 1 4 4
1 3 1 3 .
4
Show, for a given angle , that the composition of the two transformations is a rotation
in 2D.
4 3D Computer Graphics
Some of the newest and most exciting work in computer graphics is connected with molecular
modeling. With 3D graphics, a biologist can examine a simulated protein molecule and search
for active sites that might accept a drug molecule. The biologist can rotate and translate an
experimental drug and attempt to attach it to the protein. This ability to visualize potential
chemical reactions is vital to modern drug and cancer research. In fact, advances in drug design
depend, on some extent, upon progress in the ability of computer graphics to construct realistic
simulations of molecules and their interactions.
Current research in molecular modeling is focused on virtual reality, an environment in which a
researcher can see and feel the drug molecule slide into the protein. Another design for virtual
reality involves a helmet and glove that detects head, hand, and finger movements. The helmet
contains two tiny computer screens, one for each eye. Making this virtual environment more
realistic is a challenge to engineers, scientist, and mathematicians. The mathematics we will
examine barely opens the door to this interesting and important field of research.
In 3D, a point can be rotated about any one of the three axes. The 3d version of the 2d rotation
matrix A are given by: P =

cos() −sin() 0
sin() cos() 0
0 0 1

, Q =

1 0 0
0 cos() −sin()
0 sin() cos()

, and
R =

cos() 0 sin()
0 1 0
−sin() 0 cos()

.
The matrix P rotates a point in 3D about the z-axis, Q about the x-axis, and R about the
y-axis. These are not the only possible rotations in 3D, but we will limit our attention to these
possibilities for now.
1. What feature of each of the matrices above tells us quickly the axis about which the
rotation is being done?
2. We saw earlier that multiplication of 2D rotation matrices is commutative, even though
matrix multiplication in general is not commutative. We’ll try this for 3D rotation matri-
ces. Let P30 and P45 be the matrices for rotations of 30◦ and 45◦, respectively, around the
z-axis. Compute P30P45 and P45P30. What do you observe?
3. Now compute P30R45 and R45P30. what do you observe? Hold an object (such as your
textbook) out in front of you, and rotate it as indicated in these product matrices. Try to
convince yourself that what you observed mathematically is consistent with reality. Write
a couple of sentences to describe what you observed, both physically and mathematically.
5
4. Try to generalize what you computed in the preceding steps. In particular, are any 3D
rotation matrices multiplicatively commutative? If so, which ones?
5. Suppose an image is stored in computermemory as we described earlier–a set of coordinates
in 3D space. Assume that when the object is displayed on the screen, the x-axis is
perpendicular to the screen, the y-axis is horizontal, and the z-axis is vertical. Thus, the
yz-plane is on the surface of the screen. The software can perform rotations by multiplying
each point (as a vector) by an appropriate rotation matrix and then displaying the result.
If we want to display the object so that it is first flipped over from our right to our left,
and then the axis projected toward us is tilted upward 20◦, what matrix can the computer
use to do this transformation? Explain your reasoning, and compute the matrix.
5 Homogeneous Coordinates in 3D
Just as 2D transformation can be represented by 3 × 3 matrices, using homogeneous coordi-
nates, 3D transformations can be represented by 4×4 matrices, providing we use homogeneous
coordinate representations of points in 3-space as well. By analogy with the 2D case, we say
that (x, y, z, 1) are homogeneous coordinates for the point (x, y, z).
In the first four questions below, give the 4×4 matrix for performing the indicated translations
in 3D.
1. Rotation about the y-axis through an angle of 30◦.
2. Translation by (−6, 4, 5).
3. Scaling by (−6, 4, 5).
4. Rotation about the z-axis through an angle of −30◦, and then translates by (5,−2, 1).
5. Illustrate the effects of the above transformations on the triangle with vertices (4.2, 1.2, 4),
(6, 4, 2), and (2, 2, 6).

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noreply@blogger.com (Rupak Nepali) — Tue, 03 Nov 2009 07:50:00 +0000

JavaScript

noreply@blogger.com (Rupak Nepali) — Sun, 01 Nov 2009 12:15:00 +0000

JavaScript cookies are stored in the document.cookie object and are created by assigning values to this object. When creating a cookie, you typically specify a name, value, and expiration date and time for that cookie. The cookie will then be accessible in your scripts every time the user returns to your site until the cookie expires. These cookies will also be sent to your server every time the user requests a page from your site. The simplest way to create a cookie is to assign a string value to the
document.cookie object, which looks like this:

name=value;expires=date

video of basic javascript

Cookie management in web technology

noreply@blogger.com (Rupak Nepali) — Sun, 01 Nov 2009 11:44:00 +0000

A cookie management system serves as a central storage location for information and other data on users. A user's machine contains a cookie having a key and the cookie management system associates user information with this key. Upon receiving a request from a user, a web site retrieves the key from the user's machine and queries the cookie management system for the user information. The cookie management system retrieves the data associated with the key and returns the user information to the site. The sites therefore do not need to store information on all users nor do they need to place their own cookies on the user's machine. If sites obtain more data about a user during an interaction, the sites send this data to the cookie management system which updates its database. The user's machine may contain multiple cookies that correspond to different people and the site can prompt the user to select the appropriate one. The cookies may correspond to the same user and specify different amounts or categories of information. The user may supply a password to enable sites to access their data from the cookie management system.

name=value; expires=date

<head>

<script language=”JavaScript”>

document.cookie = “myCookie=” + escape(“This is my
Cookie”);

</script>

</head>

noreply@blogger.com (Rupak Nepali) — Mon, 26 Oct 2009 18:56:00 +0000

Untitled Document

CS102: Topic #2 - Variables and Expressions

The topic of variables is one of the most important in C or any other high-level programming language.

We will start with an example. Here is a simple, totally useless example of a variable in use:

#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)

{

int x;

x = 5;

printf("The value of x is %d.\n", x);

return 0;

}

In this example, "x" is the name of a variable. The line "int x;" is an example of a local declaration. We are declaring that "x" is the name of a variable of type "int" which stands for "integer". So "x" can take on integer values. When the computer sees a declaration like this, it sets aside a space in memory to store the value of the variable. The line "x = 5;" sets the value of "x" to 5. We've previously seen "printf" used to print just strings. The %d is a special code that causes the "printf" function to fill in to this part of the string with an integer value specified after the string. If an integer variable appears after the string, the value of that variable is printed out. You could also include a constant. If the value 5 is used instead of the variable "x", the output of this program would be the same. Either way, it causes the string "The value of x is 5." to be printed on its own line.

Technically speaking, a variable is a named memory location. Every variable has a type, which defines the possible values that the variable can take, and an identifier, which is the name by which the variable is referred.

In order to use a variable in a C program, you must first declare it. You declare a variable with a declaration. As in the example shown above, a declaration of a variable consists of the variable’s type followed by the variable’s name and then a semicolon. There must be whitespace between the type and the name. It is also possible to declare multiple variables on one line, as we’ll see later.

You probably have some notion of a variable from algebra. In algebra, most variables are single letters, like "x" or "y". These are acceptable variable names in C also, but when programming in C, you often you use several characters to create descriptive variable names. Here are the rules that bind possible variable names, or identifiers, in C:

Rules for identifiers:

The first character must be an alphabetic character (lower-case or capital letters) or an underscore ‘_’.

All characters must be alphabetic characters, digits, or underscores.

The first 31 characters of the identifier are significant. Identifiers that share the same first 31 characters may be indistinguishable from each other.

Cannot duplicate a reserved word. A reserved word is one that has special meaning to C.

Valid identifiers:

x

Name

first_name

name2

_maxInt

Invalid identifiers:

2name             /* Can’t start with number */

first name       /* Can’t use ‘ ’ */

first-name       /* Can’t use ‘-’ */

int                    /* Can’t use reserved word */

The type, or data type, of a variable determines a set of values that the variable might take and a set of operations that can be applied to those values.

Four standard data types provided for by C are:

int – used for variables that can take on numeric integer values.

char – used for variables that can take one character from the computer’s "alphabet" as a value. Most computers use the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) alphabet.

float – used for variables that can take on numeric values with a fractional part.

void – used mainly for functions that don’t take any parameters or functions that don’t return a value.

In addition to these basic types, there are modifiers that you can apply to the types. For instance, you can specify that a variable is a signed int (one that can take both positive and negative values) or an unsigned int (one that can only take positive values).

Remember that a variable is a named memory location. Memory of a computer is divided into bytes. A byte is a sequence of 8 bits. A bit is a 0 or a 1. The number of bytes that a variable occupies in memory determines the number of possible values that it can take. C does not specify the size of an integer variable. Most computers today use 32 bit integers (4 bytes), although until recently, many used 16 bit integers (two bytes). One way to control the size of an integer variable is to specify that it is a short int (16 bits) or a long int (32 bits).

Let’s say that an integer uses 4 bytes, or 32 bits, of memory. Then there are 2^32 possible values that this variable can take (corresponding to the 2^32 possible combinations of 0’s and 1’s).

A 32 bit integer can have 2^32 = 4,294,967,296 possible values.

A signed 32 bit integer can have values ranging from –2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647.

An unsigned 32 bit integer can gave values ranging from 0 to 4,294,967,295.

A 16 bit integer can have 2^16 = 65,536 possible values.

A signed 16 bit integer can have values ranging from –32,768 to 32,767.

An unsigned 16 bit integer can have values ranging from 0 to 65,535.

A character, or "char", occupies just one byte of memory. Remember 1 byte = 8 bits, so there are only 2^8 = 256 possible characters. As mentioned above, the "alphabet" used by most computers is the ASCII alphabet. There are actually only 128 characters defined in standard ASCII, corresponding to the numbers from 0 to 127. So characters with values between 128 and 255 won’t be consistent from computer to computer.

Here are some of the important ranges within the ASCII character set:

48 – 57: the digits ‘0’ through ‘9’

65 – 90: the capital letters ‘A’ through ‘Z’

97 – 122: the lowercase letters ‘a’ through ‘z’

Here is a simple, useless example of a program using a character variable:

#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)

{

char x;

x = ‘Q’;

printf("The value of x is %c.\n", x);

return 0;

}

This program prints out the string "The value of x is Q." on its own line.

There are two ways to specify a character in C. A simple character that appears on the keyboard can usually be specified by just typing the character within single quotes, like in this example. The other way is to specify it with a number, the number whose ASCII code represents the character. Remember that the range from 65 to 90 in ASCII represents the capital letters. This means that 81 represents Q. So an equivalent statement to "x = ‘Q’;" would be "x = 81". Because x is declared to be a "char", the computer knows that the 81 represent the letter Q.

Notice that instead of "%d", the "printf" string now contains a "%c", which means that the value that gets printed in its place should be considered a character. If a "%d" were used in the program, it would print "The value of x is 81."!

In C, the ‘=’ symbol is an assignment operator. It causes the computer to evaluate the expression to the right of the ‘=’ and assign the value of the expression to the variable to the left of the ‘=’. So let’s say that x is an integer. The statement "x = 5;" will set the value of the variable named x to 5. This is different than the use of ‘=’ in algebra, in which it is used to express a fact. In algebra, if you see the following two lines:

x = 5;

x = 7;

They would express a contradiction. In C, this is perfectly valid. The first statement sets the value of x to 5. The second resets the value of x to 7. The value of x is no longer 5. In fact, if these two statements appear right next to each other in a C program with nothing in between, the first of the two statements is useless, but perfectly valid.

The expression to the right of the ‘=’ doesn’t have to be a single constant. It could be a mathematical expression, possibly containing variables. In the following examples, we’re going to assume that x and y are integer variables. The following statement is valid:

x = 2 * (3 + 99) / 20;

Since x is declared to be an integer, and the expression to the right of ‘=’ evaluates to 204 / 20 which is 10.2, the final value of x will be 10. The fractional part of the expression is cut.

The following statement is also valid:

x = y + 5;

In this case, the value of x will be 5 more than the value of y.

Here is another valid statement:

x = x + 1;

In algebra, if you ever derive a formula like this, it either means that you made a mistake or that there was a contradiction between other formulas somewhere. In C, this is a perfectly valid and very common statement. Remember, the expression to the right of the equal sign is evaluated first, and its value is then assigned to the variable to the left. So if x equals five when this statement is first reached, the expression to the right of ‘=’ evaluates to 6, and the value of 6 is assigned back to x.

Here is a non-valid statement:

x + 1 = 10;

In algebra, you could solve this and discover that x = 9. In C, this is not valid. You can not assign a value to the quantity "x+1". Only variables can appear to the left of ‘=’.

Now consider one of the previous programs with an extra line:

#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)

{

char x;

x = ‘Q’;

x = x + 9;

printf("The value of x is %c.\n", x);

return 0;

}

Since "x" is a character, the statement "x = ‘Q’;" is equivalent to "x = 81". The new value of x after the statement "x = x + 9;" will be 90, which is the ASCII code for a capital Z. So this program prints "The value of x is Z." to the screen on its own line.

There are some special characters that have special symbolic sequences set aside to represent them. We've already seen one case of this; the newline character is represented by ‘\n’. It is also number 10 in the ASCII chart. So if x is a character, then the lines "x = ‘\n’;" and "x = 10;" are equivalent. Some other special characters are:

\t          tab

\b         backspace

\a         bell

\’          single quote

\"         double quote

\\          backslash

Here is a simple example using a float.

#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)

{

float x;

x = 2.5;

x = x * 3;

printf("The value of x is %f.\n", x);

return 0;

}

Note the %f in the printf string, which means that the value that gets printed in its place should be considered a float. This may not print exactly what you expect. This program will print the string "The value of x is 7.500000." on its own line. It is possible to control the format of how floats get printed, but that is a later topic.

When you have multiple variables of the same type, you can declare them with multiple lines or one line. The following three lines:

int first;

int second;

int third;

is equivalent to the following one line:

int first, second, third;

Variable in C are not necessarily initialized automatically. You should always initialize a variable before using its value. The following program has unpredictable behavior:

#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)

{

int x;

/* x is not initialized, its value is not predictable */

printf("The value of x is %d.\n", x);

return 0;

}

Since x is never initialized, there is no way of predicting its value.

Variables can be initialized while they are declared. So the following code at the start of a function:

int x;

x = 5;

is equivalent to:

int x = 5;

If you declare multiple variables with one line and want to initialize all of them, you must specify all of their values. For example:

int x = 0, y = 0, z = 0;

If you just used:

int x, y, z = 0; /* Only z is initialized */

only z would be initialized.

Another operator that C recognizes is known as the modulus operator. This operator returns the remainder when one operand is divided by another. Here’s an example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)

{

int operand1 = 22, operand2 = 5, quotient, remainder;

            quotient = operand1 / operand2;

            remainder = operand1 % operand2;

printf("When %d is divided by %d the quotient is %d and the remainder is %d.\n", operand1, operand2, quotient, remainder);

            return 0;

}

This program prints the string "When 22 is divided by 5 the quotient is 4 and the remainder is 2." to the screen on its own line.

This is the first example I’ve given in which the "printf" string includes more than one variable. It’s pretty straightforward how this works. All instances of a special symbols in the string get replaced with values given by the corresponding expressions or variables appearing after the string, in order, separated by commas.

Two other common operators are the increment and decrement operators. The following statements:

++x;

x++;

are both equivalent to:

x = x + 1;

while

--x;

x--;

are both equivalent to:

x = x –1;

You will often see these operators used to increment or decrement a variable that is also being used as part of an expression. If the operator appears before the variable, the variable’s final value is used in the expression. If the operator appears after the variable, the variable’s original value is used in the expression. For example;

x = 5;

y = x++;

After these two statements, y will equal 5 and x will equal 6.

x = 5;

y = ++x;

After these two statements, y will equal 6 and x will equal 6.

x = 5;

y = x--;

After these two statements, y will equal 5 and x will equal 4.

x = 5;

y = --x;

After these two statements, y will equal 4 and x will equal 4.

Notice that some of the expressions we’ve been using mix variables with constants. So far, when we’ve used numerical constants, we just specified the number outright. Sometimes, you may want to code common constants, such as pi, so that you don't have to type in the value multiple times. There are at least two ways to do this. One is to use the const qualifier in the declaration of a variable. For example:

const float pi = 3.14159;

Of course, this is not the exact value of pi, but an approximation!

The variable pi can now be used in expressions like any other float variable, but the value can never be changed. If your program tries to change it, the compiler will notice and give you an error.

Here is an example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main(void)

{

const float pi=3.14159;

int radius = 5;

printf("The approximate circumference of a circle with radius %d is %f.\n", radius, 2*pi*radius);

return 0;

}

This program prints "The approximate circumference of a circle with radius 5 is 31.415901." to the screen.

Another way to do it is to use the preprocessor command "#define". The "#define" preprocessor command causes the compiler to replace all instances of specific text with other text. Here is an example of its use:

#include <stdio.h>

#define PI 3.14159

int main(void)

{

int radius = 5;

printf("The approximate circumference of a circle with radius %d is %f.\n", radius, 2*PI*radius);

return 0;

}

Two things to note here: First, there is no semicolon at the end of the "#define" line. If there were, the semicolon would get added along with the 3.14159 wherever you see PI in the code, and this would cause an error. Second, using "#define" can lead to some weird errors. For instance, let’s say you define "PI" like here, and then later you try to name a variable "SPICE". The PI would be replaced with 3.14159 by the compiler, and this would lead to an error.

Two other topics related to expressions are those of precedence and associativity.

The precedence of operators determines the order in which different operators are evaluated when they occur in the same expression. Operators of higher precedence are applied before operators of lower precedence.

Consider the statement:

x = 2 * (140 + 60) / 20;

The precedence of multiplication and division are higher than the precedence of addition, but the precedence of parentheses is highest of all. So the value of "x" will be 20.

If the statement was written without the parentheses:

x = 2 * 140 + 60 / 20;

Then the value of "x" will be 283.

The associativity of operators determines the order in which operators of equal precedence are evaluated when they occur in the same expression. Most operators have a left-to-right associativity, but some have right-to-left associativity.

Here are some more examples. Assume that x is an int:

x = 5 - 2 * 7 - 9;

The ‘*’ has a higher precedence than ‘-’ so it is evaluated first, and the statement is equivalent to:

x = 5 – 14 – 9;

The minus has left-to-right associativity, so the statement is equivalent to:

x = -18;

Also, the ‘=’ has lower precedence than either ‘-’ or ‘*’ or any other operator, and this is how C enforces the rule that the expression to the right of the ‘=’ gets evaluated first and then the resulting value gets assigned to the variable to the left of the ‘=’.

The ‘=’ itself is one of the few operators that has right-to-left associativity. The following is actually a valid C statement, assuming that "x", "y", and "z" are integers:

x = y = z = 7;

This statement assigns the value of 7 to "z" first, then to "y", and then to "x".

If ‘=’ was given left-to-right associativity, the old value of "y" would be assigned to "x", then the old value of "z" would be assigned to "y", and then the value of 7 would be assigned to "z". This is pretty counter-intuitive, and that’s why ‘=’ was given right-to-left associativity!

CSS

noreply@blogger.com (Rupak Nepali) — Sun, 11 Oct 2009 05:20:00 +0000

Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) is a style sheet language used to describe the presentation (that is, the look and formatting) of a document written in a markup language. Its most common application is to style web pages written in HTML and XHTML, but the language can be applied to any kind of XML document, including SVG and XUL.
CSS is designed primarily to enable the separation of document content (written in HTML or a similar markup language) from document presentation, including elements such as the colors, fonts, and layout. This separation can improve content accessibility, provide more flexibility and control in the specification of presentation characteristics, enable multiple pages to share formatting, and reduce complexity and repetition in the structural content (such as by allowing for tableless web design). CSS can also allow the same markup page to be presented in different styles for different rendering methods, such as on-screen, in print, by voice (when read out by a speech-based browser or screen reader) and on Braille-based, tactile devices. While the author of a document typically links that document to a CSS stylesheet, readers can use a different stylesheet, perhaps one on their own computer, to override the one the author has specified.
CSS specifies a priority scheme to determine which style rules apply if more than one rule matches against a particular element. In this so-called cascade, priorities or weights are calculated and assigned to rules, so that the results are predictable.
The CSS specifications are maintained by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). Internet media type (MIME type) text/css is registered for use with CSS by RFC 2318 (March 1998).
Advantages
[edit]Flexibility
By combining CSS with the functionality of a Content Management System, a considerable amount of flexibility can be programmed into content submission forms. This allows a contributor, who may not be familiar or able to understand or edit CSS or HTML code to select the layout of an article or other page they are submitting on-the-fly, in the same form. For instance, a contributor, editor or author of an article or page might be able to select the number of columns and whether or not the page or article will carry an image. This information is then passed to the Content Management System, and the program logic will evaluate the information and determine, based on a certain number of combinations, how to apply classes and IDs to the HTML elements, therefore styling and positioning them according to the pre-defined CSS for that particular layout type. When working with large-scale, complex sites, with many contributors such as news and informational sites, this advantage weighs heavily on the feasibility and maintenance of the project.
[edit]Separation of Content from Presentation
CSS facilitates publication of content in multiple presentation formats based on nominal parameters. Nominal parameters include explicit user preferences, different web browsers, the type of device being used to view the content (a desktop computer or mobile Internet device), the geographic location of the user and many other variables.
[edit]Site-wide consistency
Main articles: Separation of presentation and content and Style sheet (web development)
When CSS is used effectively, in terms of inheritance and "cascading," a global stylesheet can be used to affect and style elements site-wide. If the situation arises that the styling of the elements should need to be changed or adjusted, these changes can be made easily, simply by editing a few rules in the global stylesheet. Before CSS, this sort of maintenance was more difficult, expensive and time-consuming.
[edit]Bandwidth
A stylesheet will usually be stored in the browser cache, and can therefore be used on multiple pages without being reloaded, increasing download speeds and reducing data transfer over a network.
[edit]Page reformatting
Main article: Progressive enhancement
With a simple change of one line, a different stylesheet can be used for the same page. This has advantages for accessibility, as well as providing the ability to tailor a page or site to different target devices. Furthermore, devices not able to understand the styling will still display the content.

Limitations
This article's Criticism or Controversy section(s) may mean the article does not present a neutral point of view of the subject. It may be better to integrate the material in such sections into the article as a whole.

This article may contain original research or unverified claims. Please improve the article by adding references. See the talk pagefor details. (March 2009)

Some noted disadvantages of using "pure" CSS include:
Inconsistent browser support
Different browsers will render CSS layout differently as a result of browser bugs or lack of support for CSS features. For example Microsoft Internet Explorer, whose older versions, such as IE 6.0, implemented many CSS 2.0 properties in its own, incompatible way, misinterpreted a significant number of important properties, such as width, height, and float.[15]Numerous so-called CSS "hacks" must be implemented to achieve consistent layout among the most popular or commonly used browsers. Pixel precise layouts can sometimes be impossible to achieve across browsers.
Selectors are unable to ascend
CSS offers no way to select a parent or ancestor of element that satisfies certain criteria. A more advanced selector scheme (such as XPath) would enable more sophisticated stylesheets. However, the major reasons for the CSS Working Group rejecting proposals for parent selectors are related to browser performance and incremental rendering issues.
One block declaration cannot explicitly inherit from another
Inheritance of styles is performed by the browser based on the containment hierarchy of DOM elements and the specificity of the rule selectors, as suggested by the section 6.4.1 of the CSS2 specification.[16] Only the user of the blocks can refer to them by including class names into the class attribute of a DOM element.
Vertical control limitations
While horizontal placement of elements is generally easy to control, vertical placement is frequently unintuitive, convoluted, or impossible. Simple tasks, such as centering an element vertically or getting a footer to be placed no higher than bottom of viewport, either require complicated and unintuitive style rules, or simple but widely unsupported rules.[clarification needed]
Absence of expressions
There is currently no ability to specify property values as simple expressions (such as margin-left: 10% - 3em + 4px;). This is useful in a variety of cases, such as calculating the size of columns subject to a constraint on the sum of all columns. However, a working draft with a calc() value to address this limitation has been published by the CSS WG.[17] Internet Explorer versions 5 to 7 support a proprietary expression() statement,[18] with similar functionality. This proprietary expression() statement is no longer supported from Internet Explorer 8 onwards, except in compatibility modes. This decision was taken for "standards compliance, browser performance, and security reasons".[18]
Lack of orthogonality
Multiple properties often end up doing the same job. For instance, position, display and float specify the placement model, and most of the time they cannot be combined meaningfully. A display: table-cell element cannot be floated or given position: relative, and an element with float: left should not react to changes of display. In addition, some properties are not defined in a flexible way that avoids creation of new properties. For example, you should use the "border-spacing" property on table element instead of the "margin-*" property on table cell elements. This is because according to the CSS specification, internal table elements do not have margins.
Margin collapsing
Margin collapsing is, while well-documented and useful, also complicated and is frequently not expected by authors, and no simple side-effect-free way is available to control it.
Float containment
CSS does not explicitly offer any property that would force an element to contain floats. Multiple properties offer this functionality as a side effect, but none of them are completely appropriate in all situations. As there will be an overflow when the elements, which is contained in a container, use float property. Generally, either "position: relative" or "overflow: hidden"[19] solves this. Floats will be different according to the web browser size and resolution, but positions can not.
Lack of multiple backgrounds per element
Highly graphical designs require several background images for every element, and CSS can support only one. Therefore, developers have to choose between adding redundant wrappers around document elements, or dropping the visual effect. This is partially addressed in the working draft of the CSS3 backgrounds module,[20] which is already supported in Safari and Konqueror.
Control of Element Shapes
CSS currently only offers rectangular shapes. Rounded corners or other shapes may require non-semantic markup. However, this is addressed in the working draft of the CSS3 backgrounds module.[21]
Lack of Variables
CSS contains no variables. This makes it necessary to use error-prone "replace-all" techniques to change fundamental constants, such as the color scheme or various heights and widths. Server-side generation of CSS scripts, using for example PHP, can help to mitigate this problem.
Lack of column declaration
While possible in current CSS, layouts with multiple columns can be complex to implement. With the current CSS, the process is often done using floating elements which are often rendered differently by different browsers, different computer screen shapes, and different screen ratios set on standard monitors.
Cannot explicitly declare new scope independently of position
Scoping rules for properties such as z-index look for the closest parent element with a position:absolute or position:relative attribute. This odd coupling has two undesired effects: 1) it is impossible to avoid declaring a new scope when one is forced to adjust an element's position, preventing one from using the desired scope of a parent element and 2) users are often not aware that they must declare position:relative or position:absolute on any element they want to act as "the new scope". Additionally, a bug in the Firefox browser prevents one from declaring table elements as a new css scope using position:relative (one can technically do so, but numerous graphical glitches result).
Poor Layout Controls for Flexible Layouts
While new additions to CSS3 provide a stronger, more robust layout feature-set, CSS is still very much rooted as a styling language, not a layout language. This problem has also meant that creating fluid layouts is still very much done by hand-coding CSS, and make the development of a standards-based WYSIWYG editor more difficult than expected.

Why to use CSS, its advantages
CSS stands for Cascading Style Sheet. CSS is used to improve the presentation of the content within HTML tags. Using CSS we can define different ways of content display based on the media.

WE will discuss some advantages of using CSS

Less code
As we define the property with value at a common style class and use the same class at different locations, so we use less code. Less code means less bandwidth consumption and easy to maintain the content.

Easy maintenance
As we define styles globally or at a common place so any changes became easy. For example in a site we have all the name of the products is displayed using a particular style property. Now by changing the style class at external style sheet for the product name we can change the style through out the site. We can keep more than one style sheet and use them based on requirement. With property inheritance methods maintaining of different styles of the same tag became easy.

Higher content to code ( tag ) ratio
We can achieve higher content to code ration in a page by using CSS as we can shift the style declarations to an external file. This is important for search engine point of view. We present less tags ( style tags ) and more content to the spiders for indexing.

First download of pages.
As browsers cache the style sheet page so the page loading became fast. The styles classes are not loaded from server each time different pages of same site using same CSS is used.

Flexibility in defining style.
The name cascading indicates that we can use more than one style and the priority is given to local styles first. We can override the global style declared and locally assign the style to the tag.

Type Of Selectors

Class selectors
Used to define styles that can be used without redefining plain HTML tags.

ID selectors
Used to define styles relating to objects with a unique ID (most often layers)

The general syntax for a Class selector is:

.ClassSelector {Property:Value;}

For example:

This is a bold tag carrying the headline class

This is an italics tag carrying the headline class

Click here to open a window that shows the result of the above example.

Class selectors are used when you want to define a style that does not redefine an HTML tag entirely.

When referring to a Class selector you simply add the class to an HTML tag like in the above example (class="headline").

________________________________________
The general syntax for an ID selector is:

#IDSelector {Property:Value;}

For example:

THIS IS LAYER 1
POSITIONED AT 100,100

THIS IS LAYER 2
POSITIONED AT 140,140

Click here to open a window that shows the result of the above example.

ID selectors are used when you want to define a style relating to an object with a unique ID.

This selector is most widely used with layers (as in the above example), since layers are always defined with a unique ID.

SPAN and DIV as carriers

Two tags are particularly useful in combination with class selectors: and

.

Both are "dummy" tags that don't do anything in themselves. Therefore, they are excellent for carrying CSS styles.
is an "inline-tag" in HTML, meaning that no line breaks are inserted before or after the use of it.

is a "block tag", meaning that line breaks are automatically inserted to distance the block from the surrounding content (like

tags).

has a particular importance for layers. Since layers are separate blocks of information.

is an obvious choice when defining layers on your pages.

Remove a running process from memory in DOS

noreply@blogger.com (Rupak Nepali) — Fri, 28 Aug 2009 06:50:00 +0000

KILL (Resource kit)

Remove a running process from memory.

Syntax
KILL [option] process_id
KILL [option] task_name
KILL [option] window_title

Option
-f Force process kill

Note: Kill -f basically just nukes the process from existence, potentially leaking a lot of memory and losing any data that the process hadn't committed to disk yet. It is there for worst case scenarios - when you absolutely must end the process now, and don't care whether proper cleanup gets done or not.